The Italian Wars
Introduction
In 1494, Charles VIII of France invaded Italy. The event itself was traumatic enough, for Italy had not been invaded in any serious way since the days of the Hohenstaufen in the 13th century. The invasion had a greater significance than the immediate effects of foreign armies, for it heralded a period of French and Spanish involvement in Italian affairs that would last for almost forty years. Louis XII and Francis I both took a turn at invading Italy, with varying success, followed by an especially devastating invasion by Emperor Charles V, who threw out the French but only at the expense of bringing in the Spanish. There are those who argue that these successive waves of foreign invaders forever crippled the Renaissance in Italy. I'm not willing to go quite that far, but there's no doubt that they permanently altered the political landscape, especially in the north. And there's also no doubt that from that point on, Florence no longer held center stage in the north, but was supplanted by Rome and Venice.
Florence had been at the very center of Italian political life ever since arranging the Peace of Lodi in 1454. This peace was achieved at least in part because Florence had abandoned its long enmity with Milan, hoping that peace would bring financial prosperity, as indeed it had. But there were other players. Venice, had expanded onto the mainland (the terre ferma) and now had a direct interest in the balance of power in the north. Rome, of course, still fretted over control in the center of Italy and feared overbearing neighbors either to the south or the north. And in these years had a couple of popes who thought they could play politics in the big leagues.
Naples was the real flash point, though. In part this was because the kingdom had in the past had Angevin rulers, and the dukes of Anjou were immediately related to the French royal house. This meant that France had claims on Naples. And in part it was simple geography: to get to Naples, a French army would have to pass through northern and central Italy. This, in turn, meant that the northern powers (and the pope) would have to choose sides, should the French ever decide to move.
In 1494, the French decided to move.
Italian Political Situation in 1494
Milan
Ruled at the time by Ludovico Sforza, nicknamed Il Moro because of his dark skin. Milan was economically wealthy, but it had suffered from a run of bad luck in its rulers, and Ludovico was neither strong nor politically astute. He was a classic case of a ruler who wanted to run with the big dogs but who lacked the necessary resources and skill.
B. Venice
1. was both wealthy and politically strong
2. had extensive mainland holdings
3. which aroused jealousy among the other cities, especially at Milan and Rome
C. Naples
1. still politically disordered
2. Sicily had been ruled by the house of Aragon since the 13th century
3. the Aragonese had conquered mainland Naples in 1435
4. Alfonso V of Aragon died in 1458, leaving Aragon and Sicily to his brother Juan II, and the kingdom of Naples to his illegitimate son Ferrante
5. in 1494, Ferrante died, and a political explosion occurred
D. France
1. ruled by Charles VIII (1483-1498)
2. many pretexts for him to enter Italy
a. had a distant claim on the throne of Naples
b. a crusade against the Turks
c. Naples and Milan were in conflict, and Ludovico Sforza turned repeatedly to Charles to intervene
d. when King Ferrante died, Ludovico had some claim to the spoils of Naples
e. many others, in Naples and Rome and France, begged Charles to intervene
f. but Charles needed only a good opportunity, for he thought mainly of glory in arms
3. Charles VIII
a. physically deformed
b. weak-minded
c. nearly illiterate
d. brought up on tales of chivalry and conquest
E. Invasion
1. entered Italy in September 1494 at the head of 30,000 troops, including Swiss pikemen and Scottish archers and a huge train of artillery, plus a large fleet providing support and supplies
2. the largest army the Italians had ever seen
3. the current King of Naples, Alfonso II, tried to prepare, but his defenses collapsed as fast as he built them
4. his ally, Piero de' Medici of Florence, was to delay Charles, but the Florentine people would have none of it and the city surrendered without a fight
5. likewise, the pope gave Charles free passage through the papal states
6. Charles arrived in Naples five month after entering Italy
7. Alfonso fled to Sicily, and Charles had himself crowned king of Naples without ever having fought a battle
F. The difficulties of victory
1. the Neapolitans liked their French oppressors no better than those of Aragon
2. rebellions and riots broke out quickly and Charles was forced to withdraw to the north before his lines of retreat were cut off
3. Alfonso returned to the mainland and raised the standard of revolt, his armies led by one of the great military commanders of the time, Gonzalo de Córdoba
G. League of Venice
1. also called the Holy League
2. put together by Pope Alexander VI, the Borgia pope
3. members included the papacy, Venice, Milan, Emperor Maximilian and the King of Aragon
4. its alleged purpose was a crusade against the Turks, but everyone knew it was directed against Charles
5. and Charles got out of Italy before the full force of the League could be brought to bear
H. Later invasions
1. the French repeatedly invaded over the next 50 years
2. and the Spanish counter-invaded
3. Italy served as the battleground for wars between the Spanish and the French
4. Louis XII (1498-1515) invaded in 1499
a. he captured Milan when Ludovico's Swiss refused to fight against their countrymen employed by the French
b. they ruled there and in Naples until 1504
c. in that year the Spanish ran them out again
5. Julius II and the Holy League
a. Julius joined the French in attacking Venice's mainland empire (1509)
b. then, when the French were achieving great success, he reversed his field and formed a league to expel the French (1510)
c. it took two years, but the Spanish finally drove out the French, and Julius was left with possession of central Italy - exactly what he had wanted in the first place
6. Francis I
a. invades in 1515, largely because it might bring glory, not because he had legitimate claims
b. defeats the Swiss at Marignano and becomes Duke of Milan
IV. SAVONAROLA
A. his preaching
1. a Dominican friar in Florence
2. immensely popular and a powerful preacher
3. had been preaching for years condemning immorality, frivolity and corruption
4. claimed to be the mouthpiece of God
5. had repeatedly prophesied the punishment and cleansing of Florence at the hands of a heaven-sent avenger
6. Charles' invasion appeared to be the fulfillment of these prophesies
B. Charles' invasion in Florence
1. Savonarola and his followers hailed Charles' incursion into Tuscany as the work of God
2. they welcomed Charles with open arms
3. Piero de' Medici was banished from Florence for life
4. return of the Republic, though in modified form
5. greatly extended citizen participation in government
6. high level of political debates went on in public and in private
7. in fact, Savonarola became the virutal dictator
C. Savonarola's regime
1. he repudiated the Renaissance
a. abolished secular art
b. secular drama
c. held a great bonfire in which the citizens burned their cosmetics, jewelry and books
2. continued is fiery sermons condemning all who disagreed with his austere religion
3. reformed the church throughout Florence, running out priests and installing his own zealots in their place
4. thundered vociferously against the papacy, winning the enmity of Alexander VI
5. in 1497 he began attacking papal political policies
6. Alexander warned him, but Savonarola persisted
7. finally excommunicated in late 1497
8. this opened the door for his enemies
D. his fall and death
1. the Franciscans attacked him on theoretical grounds
2. he entered into a series of debates with them
3. the result was they baited him into a battle of miraculous powers
4. he and a Franciscan were to walk through flames together, to prove whom God favored
5. the show was delayed, then cancelled, and Savonarola was perceived to have backed out
6. 1498 brought hard economic times, the expulsion of the French, and the death of Charles VIII, his protector
7. the This was Font/Pitch 8,10 - Off.This was Font/Pitch 4,10 - On.SignoriaThis was Font/Pitch 4,10 - Off.This was Font/Pitch 8,10 - On. charged him with plotting to overthrow the constitution, he was tried and convicted
8. on 23 May 1498 he was hanged, then his body was burned and his ashes thrown into the River Arno
E. SIGNIFICANCE
1. the "barbarians" discovered Italy as a political prize
2. the Italian mercenaries could be beaten
V. THE INVASIONS OF LOUIS XII
A. INVASION OF MAXIMILIAN
1. Venice and Milan
a. fearful of French power
b. Lodovico was embittered because Charles had driven him out
2. both appeal to Max
3. Max feared an increase in French power
4. invades in 1496; invasion is a failure
B. LOUIS' FIRST INVASION, 1499
1. his claims on Italy
a. as the grandson of a Visconti he had a claim to Milan
b. as cousin to Charles VIII he had a claim to Naples
2. diplomatic moves
a. won Venice by promising territory, including Cremona
b. signed an agreement with the Swiss to supply him with soldiers and to stay out of Italian armies
c. brought in Pope Alexander VI by giving Caesar Borgia a French bride and a French duchy
d. against this Lodovico was helpless and he fled to the emperor
3. October 1499 Louis enters Milan in triumph as Duke of Milan
4. all Italy, except Venice and Naples, was under French influence
C. SECOND INVASION, 1501
1. Louis signed a secret pact with Ferdinand of Spain and Pope Alexander for the partitioning of Naples
2. in 1501 a French army marched south, plundered Capua, then marched easily into Naples, which had been abandoned by King Frederigo
3. meanwhile, the Spanish invaded from the south, taking Taranto and other major cities
4. when the two armies met, disputes arose over the boundaries, and Spain and France wound up fighting one another, much to Pope Alexander's relief
5. the Spanish defeated the French in 1503, terms were settled in 1505, and Naples and Sicily remained Spanish until 1707
D. THE LEAGUE OF CAMBRAI, 1508-1516
1. Members
a. Maximilian
b. Louis XII
c. Ferdinand of Spain
d. Pope Julius
e. all directed against Venice, who had managed to anger just about everyone in Europe with her arrogance
2. Venice resists, 1509
a. her citizenry held firm
b. no one sprang to her defense
c. everyone invaded her territories
d. but then Max ran out of money and returned to Germany
e. Louis XII gathered in the territories he had in mind, then returned to France
3. The papacy switches sides
a. Julius, realizing that a victory for the League would be a defeat for the papacy, threw in with Venice (1510)
b. Julius declared he would not shave until the invaders had been driven out, and coined his motto: This was Font/Pitch 8,10 - Off.This was Font/Pitch 4,10 - On.Furoi i barbari!This was Font/Pitch 4,10 - Off.This was Font/Pitch 8,10 - On. -- out with the barbarians!
c. the French continued to win, however, the high tide and the turning point being the Battle of Ravenna (1512), which the French won, but in which they lost their best commander, Gaston de Foix
d. Julius continued to work the diplomatic line
(1) he persuaded Max to join
(2) got the Swiss to join -- at this time they assumed the role of protectors of the pope's person
(3) by late summer, 1512, the French were driven out of Italy and Julius was hailed as the liberator of Italy
4. when Louis XII died in 1515, nothing remained of his Italian empire except Genoa
VI. THE INVASION OF FRANCIS I
A. HIS INVASION
1. proposed to recapture all Louis had won and lost
2. his army was 40,000 strong, the largest yet seen in Italy (1515)
B. BATTLE OF MARIGNANO
1. September 13-14, 1515
2. Swiss left 13,000 dead on the battlefield
3. no one had seen slaughter on this scale
4. Francis gets Milan, the Swiss power is broken
C. PEACE
1. Pope Leo X threw in with the French, on the advice of Machiavelli
2. this marked the end of the League of Cambrai (1516)
VII. CHARLES V AND THE SACK OF ROME
A. FIRST INVASION
1. invited in by Leo X
2. Charles had offered a myriad of benefits and prizes
3. Charles' forces easily took Milan, which had revolted against its French garrison
4. the emperor and pope, working together, restore Francesco Maria Sforza, son of Lodovico, as Duke of Milan (1521)
5. Leo X dies then, apparently victorious
B. SECOND INVASION
1. Clement VII
a. he made irresolution a policy
b. feared both France and the Emperor
c. openly sided first with Charles then, thinking better of it, sided secretly with Francis, then was unable to keep the secret -- Charles vowed revenge
2. Battle of Pavia, 1525
a. German/Spanish army of the empire defeated the French forces, which were commanded by Francis
b. Francis himself was captured
c. the French army was all but annihilated
3. Italy prostrate
a. no city felt safe
b. one after another approached Charles with a variety of bribes for permission to stay in existence
c. the pope hastily signed an alliance with Charles
(1) but the pope did not know when to leave well enough be
(2) joined in a plot to free Milan from imperial control
(3) plot was discovered, earning further imperial anger
d. Charles kept Francis for 11 months, then signed an incredible peace treaty
(1) France gave up Genoa, Milan, Naples, Flanders, Artois, Tournai, Burgundy and Navarre
(2) Francis agreed to marry Charles' sister
(3) France was to supply troops and ships to Charles for an expedition against the Turks, or maybe Rome
(4) Francis surrendered his two sons, aged ten and nine, as hostages for the fulfillment of these terms
e. Francis was released, reneged on everything, and was absolved of his oaths by the pope, who proceeded to draw Venice and Florence into the rebellion as well
f. Charles tricks Clement
(1) sent an agent, named Mondaca, to negotiate a settlement with Clement
(2) this he does
(3) but he also plotted with the Colonna family to raise the people in revolt
(4) and managed to persuade Clement to dispense with his personal bodyguard
g. while all this was going on, Suleiman the Magnificent overwhelmed the Hungarians at the Battle of Mohacs (1526) and captured Budapest (September 10)
h. Sept. 20, 1526 the Colonna led 5,000 men into Rome, plundered the Vatican and St. Peter's, while Clement raced desperately to the Castel Sant' Angelo
(1) the papal palace was stripped, including the pope's tiara and vestments
(2) one soldier went about the palace dressed as the pope, bestowing benedictions on the looters
i. Mondaca persuades the frightened pope that Charles was sorry and the two sign an armistice; the Colonna were pardoned
C. the sack of Rome
1. Georg von Frundsberg
a. Charles now sent a mercenary army under the leadership of a German who sympathized with Luther and regarded the pope as a traitor to the Empire
b. Georg had enough money to raise an army, but not enough to pay it. From the first, the goal was to finance the expedition through plunder, with one eye at least on Rome
c. he was joined by Charles, Duke of Bourbon, now Duke of Milan, who had made himself infamous there by the behavior of his troops and the weight of his taxes
d. the 22,000 men who comprised this army steadily got poorer and hungrier as they approached Rome
2. The attack
a. Clement feverishly tried to buy time, but the imperial army would not be bought
b. von Frundsberg fell sick as they neared Rome and played no further part
c. in the first assault Bourbon was killed, so this mob had lost its two leaders
d. in May 1527 the army fell upon the city, which was defended by only 4,000 soldiers -- all that Clement could raise
3. The sack
a. the soldiers literally killed everyone they met who would not or could not pay for their lives
b. many of the soldiers were Germans, who hated popes and cardinals, and who took special delight in killing and torturing bishops, archbishops and cardinals
c. one cardinal was lowered bound into an open grave and told it would be filled in unless his ransom were paid. It arrived only just in time
d. everything of any value was stolen or destroyed
e. the Vatican Library was saved because the nominal commander made his headquarters there, but many other books, archives and art collections were destroyed
f. several scholars were murdered; others committed suicide
g. well over 12,000 Romans were killed; destruction and theft totalled perhaps 1/4 billion modern dollars
h. the sack lasted eight days; all the while Pope Clement looked on from the towers of Sant' Angelo